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doctor
A person with medical training who diagnoses and treats illnesses and advises people on health problems. The female form is 'die Ärztin' (female doctor).
Wegen meiner starken Kopfschmerzen gehe ich morgen zum Arzt.
Because of my severe headaches, I'm going to the doctor tomorrow.
To talk about a visit to the doctor, the prepositions 'zu' and 'bei' are crucial. You use 'zum Arzt gehen' (to go to the doctor) for movement there and 'beim Arzt sein' (to be at the doctor's) for being in the doctor's office.
Ich muss heute Nachmittag zum Arzt.
I have to go to the doctor this afternoon.
The adjective 'ärztlich' (medical/doctor's) is derived from the noun 'der Arzt' (doctor). It is used to describe things that relate to a doctor or to medicine.
Für diese Reise ist ein ärztliches Attest erforderlich.
A medical certificate is required for this trip.
Common verbs used with 'Arzt' (doctor) are 'einen Arzt aufsuchen' (to see/consult a doctor; rather formal), 'einen Termin beim Arzt haben' (to have an appointment at the doctor's), or 'einen Arzt konsultieren' (to consult a doctor).
Bei diesen Symptomen sollten Sie dringend einen Arzt aufsuchen.
With these symptoms, you should urgently see a doctor.
doctor
'Arzt' and 'Doktor' can both be used for a person you go to because of a health problem. Strictly speaking, however, 'Arzt' is the job title. 'Doktor' is actually an academic title and can also refer to people who do not work in medicine at all. In everyday speech, many people still say 'Doktor' when they mean a doctor. The words can be confusing because you often hear 'zum Doktor gehen' (to go to the doctor) in everyday language. If you are speaking clearly and factually about the profession, 'Arzt' is more precise.
Nach dem Unfall hat der Arzt mein Knie untersucht.
After the accident, the doctor examined my knee.
Herr Doktor Weber erklärt der Patientin die Ergebnisse.
Doctor Weber explains the results to the patient.